Citation

Lampros M, Vlachos N, Tsitsopoulos PP, Zikou AK, Argyropoulou MI, Voulgaris S, Alexiou GA. Biomedicines 2023; 11(8).

Copyright

(Copyright © 2023, MDPI: Multidisciplinary Digital Publications Institute)

DOI

10.3390/biomedicines11082312

PMID

37626808

PMCID

PMC10452517

Abstract

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of disability worldwide. Traumatic axonal injury (TAI) is a subtype of TBI resulting from high-impact forces that cause shearing and/or stretching of the axonal fibers in white matter tracts. It is present in almost half of cases of severe TBI and frequently associated with poor functional outcomes. Axonal injury results from axonotomy due to mechanical forces and the activation of a biochemical cascade that induces the activation of proteases. It occurs at a cellular level; hence, conventional imaging modalities often fail to display TAI lesions. However, the advent of novel imaging modalities, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging and fiber tractography, has significantly improved the detection and characteristics of TAI. Furthermore, the significance of several fluid and structural biomarkers has also been researched, while the contribution of omics in the detection of novel biomarkers is currently under investigation. In the present review, we discuss the role of imaging modalities and potential biomarkers in diagnosing, classifying, and predicting the outcome in patients with TAI.

Language: en

Keywords

traumatic brain injury; outcome; advanced imaging; axonal injury; biomarkers