Citation

Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Hernández-Luna J, Aiello-Mora M, Brito-Aguilar R, Evelson PA, Villarreal-Ríos R, Torres-Jardón R, Ayala A, Mukherjee PS. Biomolecules 2023; 13(6).

Copyright

(Copyright © 2023, Switzerland Molecular Diversity Preservation International (MDPI) AG)

DOI

10.3390/biom13060927

PMID

37371506

PMCID

PMC10296707

Abstract

This Review emphasizes the impact of APOE4-the most significant genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD)-on peripheral and neural effects starting in childhood. We discuss major mechanistic players associated with the APOE alleles' effects in humans to understand their impact from conception through all life stages and the importance of detrimental, synergistic environmental exposures. APOE4 influences AD pathogenesis, and exposure to fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)), manufactured nanoparticles (NPs), and ultrafine particles (UFPs) associated with combustion and friction processes appear to be major contributors to cerebrovascular dysfunction, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress. In the context of outdoor and indoor PM pollution burden-as well as Fe, Ti, and Al alloys; Hg, Cu, Ca, Sn, and Si UFPs/NPs-in placenta and fetal brain tissues, urban APOE3 and APOE4 carriers are developing AD biological disease hallmarks (hyperphosphorylated-tau (P-tau) and amyloid beta 42 plaques (Aβ(42))). Strikingly, for Metropolitan Mexico City (MMC) young residents ≤ 40 y, APOE4 carriers have 4.92 times higher suicide odds and 23.6 times higher odds of reaching Braak NFT V stage versus APOE4 non-carriers. The National Institute on Aging and Alzheimer's Association (NIA-AA) framework could serve to test the hypothesis that UFPs and NPs are key players for oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, protein aggregation and misfolding, faulty complex protein quality control, and early damage to cell membranes and organelles of neural and vascular cells. Noninvasive biomarkers indicative of the P-tau and Aβ(42) abnormal protein deposits are needed across the disease continuum starting in childhood. Among the 21.8 million MMC residents, we have potentially 4 million APOE4 carriers at accelerated AD progression. These APOE4 individuals are prime candidates for early neuroprotective interventional trials. APOE4 is key in the development of AD evolving from childhood in highly polluted urban centers dominated by anthropogenic and industrial sources of pollution. APOE4 subjects are at higher early risk of AD development, and neuroprotection ought to be implemented. Effective reductions of PM(2.5), UFP, and NP emissions from all sources are urgently needed. Alzheimer's Disease prevention ought to be at the core of the public health response and physicians-scientist minority research be supported.

Language: en

Keywords

Humans; children; suicide; Cities; cognition; *Suicide; *Air Pollution/adverse effects; *Alzheimer Disease/genetics/pathology; air pollution; Alzheimer; amyloid beta; Amyloid beta-Peptides; APOE4; Apolipoprotein E4/genetics; Brain/pathology; early biomarkers; hyperphosphorylated tau; Metropolitan Mexico City; nanoparticles; Neuroinflammatory Diseases; neuroprotection; Particulate Matter/adverse effects; PM2.5; ultra-fine particulate matter