Citation

Tampuu A, Aidla R, van Gent JA, Matiisen T. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23(5): e2845.

Copyright

(Copyright © 2023, MDPI: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute)

DOI

10.3390/s23052845

PMID

36905051

PMCID

PMC10007091

Abstract

The core task of any autonomous driving system is to transform sensory inputs into driving commands. In end-to-end driving, this is achieved via a neural network, with one or multiple cameras as the most commonly used input and low-level driving commands, e.g., steering angle, as output. However, simulation studies have shown that depth-sensing can make the end-to-end driving task easier. On a real car, combining depth and visual information can be challenging due to the difficulty of obtaining good spatial and temporal alignment of the sensors. To alleviate alignment problems, Ouster LiDARs can output surround-view LiDAR images with depth, intensity, and ambient radiation channels. These measurements originate from the same sensor, rendering them perfectly aligned in time and space. The main goal of our study is to investigate how useful such images are as inputs to a self-driving neural network. We demonstrate that such LiDAR images are sufficient for the real-car road-following task. Models using these images as input perform at least as well as camera-based models in the tested conditions. Moreover, LiDAR images are less sensitive to weather conditions and lead to better generalization. In a secondary research direction, we reveal that the temporal smoothness of off-policy prediction sequences correlates with the actual on-policy driving ability equally well as the commonly used mean absolute error.

Language: en

Keywords

evaluation; autonomous driving; end-to-end driving; generalization; LiDAR in autonomous driving