Citation

Zijlstra T, Verhetsel A. Travel Behav. Soc. 2021; 23: 108-119.

Copyright

(Copyright © 2021, Elsevier Publishing)

DOI

10.1016/j.tbs.2020.12.007

PMID

unavailable

Abstract

There is a growing body of scientific evidence that demonstrates a negative relationship between commuting and wellbeing. However, many of the existing studies have some limitations with respect to geographical scope, the control variables included, or the operationalisation of either wellbeing or commuting. In this contribution, we consider weekly commuting hours (WCH) per employed individual. Furthermore, we combined 13 variables on physical condition, weariness, and mental condition in a new index for wellbeing. Thanks to the data from the large-scale European Working Conditions Survey from 2015, we were able to cover 35 European countries. A multilevel multiple linear regression model was developed with control variables for factors with a known influence on wellbeing, random intercepts per country, and random slopes for the estimated WCH effect per country. Our results confirm that more time spent on commuting is negatively associated with wellbeing, although the effect size of WCH on wellbeing is relatively small when compared to ageing, education level, frequently working overtime, and experiencing harassment or discrimination at work. The multilevel approach reveals relevant differences between European countries with respect to the general level of wellbeing and the effect of WCH. Nevertheless, in all the countries included in our analysis the relationship between WCH and wellbeing is slightly negative.

Language: en

Keywords

Commuting; Europe; Happiness; Mental condition; Wellbeing; Working conditions