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Abstract
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VioLit summary:
OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this paper by Lowry et al. was to investigate the extent and character of adolescent interpersonal violence. The demographic differences and trends in homicide and violent offenses among youth, the impact of interpersonal violence at school, and the individual and societal variables noted as contributing to youth violence were examined. Youth violence prevention implications were also discussed.
METHODOLOGY:
The authors conducted a non-experimental review of the pertinent literature.
FINDINGS/DISCUSSION:
The authors defined violence as "the threatened or actual use of physical force or power against oneself or another person which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in death, injury, or deprivation." Interpersonal violence was discussed as a major cause of death and injury among youth in the U.S. Homicide was noted as the second major cause of death among Americans aged 15-34 years, and was noted as the leading cause of death among young African-Americans. The economic costs of interpersonal violence to society were estimated at $10 billion in 1987 (Miller, Cohen, and Rossman, 1993, as cited by the authors). The authors argued that interpersonal violence varies according to the setting in which it takes place. In the community, youth males were at greatest risk; in the home, women and children were most at risk; and in the workplace, homicide was reported as a major cause of injury or death among both males and females (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1993, as cited by the authors). The authors reported that concern over levels of interpersonal violence at school had increased, and its decrease had become a major objective among policy makers in the Public Health Service, 1991.
The authors stated that the U.S. homicide rate was one of the highest in the industrialized world. It was reported that there were over 20,000 homicides committed each year. Youth aged 10-24 were said to have represented only 22% of the total population, yet in 1991 they were responsible for 55% of all murder arrests, and approximately 33% of murder victims were within this age group. The authors stated that there was an increment in homicide rates with age, in which youths aged 10-14 represented 2.1 per 100,000; youths aged 20-24 years represented 22.5 per 100,000 persons. Homicide rates were greater for males than for females (23.3 and 4.8 per 100,000 respectively). At ages 10-14 males were twice as likely to be murdered, then at ages 15-24 males were approximately five times more likely to be murdered compared with females. Homicide rates were highest among African-American males (highest among 20-24 year olds at 170.3 per 100,000), and females. Hispanic males and females followed. The authors stated that between 1963 and 1990, the U.S. homicide rate for the total population increased 104% from 4.9-10.0 per 100,000. Among youth, however, the rate increased 286% (3.7-14.3 per 100,000). It was claimed that between 1984-1990, there was an increase in the homicide rate among young black males aged 10-24 years of 121% (42.8-95.1 per 100,000) while the rate increase was 38% (8.0-11.1 per 100,000) for white males in this same age cohort. It was found that homicide by firearm rates among youth aged 10-24 years increased from 2.2-11.1 per 100,000 between 1963 and 1990. There was also a fourfold increase (2.8-12.4 per 100,000) in arrest rates among adolescents aged 10-17 years between 1965 and 1991; the highest recorded rate. The authors found that in 38% of homicides, relationship types between offenders and victims were unknown. In 47% of homicides, the victim was related to (12%) or acquainted with (34%) their murderer. Strangers were responsible for 15% of the homicide rate. 28% of female victims were murdered by their husbands or boyfriends. According to UCR Program data, between 1980-1991, 58% of homicide victims aged 10-24 years were killed by someone within the same age range.
Violent crime statistics were obtained, by the authors, from the National Crime Victimization Survey data conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics in 1992. This survey provided data on violent crimes experienced by the participants throughout the 6 months previous to the interview. The authors found that youth were overrepresented in the data as assault and robbery victims; 55% of youth aged 12-24 were aggravated assault victims, and 44% of youth 12 years and over were victims of robbery. Further, youth were reported as being overrepresented as assault and robbery perpetrators. 158,203 aggravated assault arrests and 86,098 robbery arrests occurred among individuals younger than 25 years in 1991. The authors found that assault (46%) and robbery (16%) victims often knew, were of a similar age to and the same race as, their perpetrator. It was also stated that almost 78% of assaults and 40% of robberies, against whites were perpetrated by whites; 83% of assaults and 89% of robberies against African-Americans were perpetrated by African-Americans. Further, 34% of all victims of assault, and 26% of victims of robbery, believed that their attackers were either influenced by drugs or alcohol at the time of the attack. The authors found that in 1991, approximately 173,000 individuals, 12 years and younger, were victims of rape (1.4 per 1000 females and 0.2 per 1000 males). Females were victims of rape 88% of the time, and males were the major perpetrators (95%). 51% of victims of rape were females aged 12-24 years. Those women at highest risk were described as single, living in city centers, having recently moved, and as having lower income. The authors found that, although there were no distinct trends in rape victimization rates against females between 1973-1991, females aged 16-24 years were still at a higher risk of being victimized than other aged women. It was reported that, in 1991, 54% of female victims of rape aged 16-19, and 65% of female rape victims aged 20-24, knew the perpetrator. The rapes took place in the victim's home (27%), or at a friend's, relative's, or neighbors, home (20%). The authors found that an estimated 45% of rapes occurred when the perpetrator was under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
The authors utilized the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), established 1990 by Center for Disease Control, to obtain estimates of physical fighting data among student youths, grades 9-12. During 1990 an estimated 42% of high school students physically fought. 50% of all fighting students were males, 34% were female. 58% of black males reported fighting involvement and 49% were white or Hispanic. A YRBSS survey sent out to households in 1994 revealed that 51% of out of school respondent youth aged 12-19 years, and 44% of school attending youth in the same age group, had been involved in physical fights. The authors found that among students ever involved in a physical fight, 63% reported that they knew their opponent.
The authors focused on interpersonal violence in the school setting. It was found, in a recent National School Boards Association (1993) survey, that 82% of U.S. school districts argued that during the past 5 years, student violence had increased. 39% of urban school districts reported a knifing or shooting, 23% reported drive-by shootings, and 15% stated that at least one rape had occurred in 1992-1993. 23% of male and 5% of female students reported having carried a knife, 3% males and 1% females stated they had taken a gun to school during 1989 (American School Health Association). During 1993 22% of male students reported that they had carried a weapon; 4% of females reported the same. The authors stated that a National Institute of Education (1976) survey found that approximately 1.3% of high school students had been attacked and 0.5% had been robbed in 1976. In 1989, according to the National Crime Victimization Survey, 9% of student youth aged 12-19 years reported that they had been a victim of violent crime in the previous 6 months. In 1993 11% of teachers (grades 3-12) indicated violence victimization (Metropolitan Life). Further, 33% of these teachers reported reluctance to attend school and propensity to discipline students less because of the constant threat of violence. 22% of grades 3-12 students reported reluctance to attend school. They had also considered changing schools. The authors argued that school violence reflected surrounding community violence (e.g., socio-demographic factors such as gender and sibling numbers, violence exposure outside of school, violence in the family, and involvement in selling/using drugs).
The authors contended that factors that contribute towards youth violence included: 1) individual factors, such as (a) developmental influences--physical/ emotional changes that occur during adulthood transition (e.g., family of origin separation issues, sexual identity development which could include extreme behavior, moral and personal value system development which could include experimentation, and future employment and responsibility preparation); (b) family influences--early childhood experiences of violence in the home, lack of parental supervision, indifference, rejection, and parents criminal behavior; (c) peer influences--peers involved in non-conventional, anti-social activities may become a source of acceptance, recognition and belonging for an adolescent at a time of separation from the family. 2) Societal factors, such as (a) media violence--witnessing acts of violence on television, and at the cinema, was said to lead to poor behavioral adjustment at school and increased aggressive behavior among children; (b) alcohol and/or other drugs--the disinhibiting power of alcohol increases likelihood of interpersonal violence; drug related homicides were said to occur during drug sales; (c) weapons and firearms access--was said to increase the likelihood that a violent disagreement would end in death, serious injury or disability; and (d) socioeconomic status--areas characterized by low SES, high population density, poor housing and increasing unemployment rates were said to more likely experience higher homicide rates. The authors stated that low SES was a greater predictor of interpersonal violence than race or ethnicity. However, African Americans were often found to be more involved in violent crime.
The authors concluded that, since youth violence was associated with development, family, and peer influences, and broader societal problems, such an array of factors makes single intervention strategies powerless. The authors said that violence prevention needed to include a combination of interventions directed at many different factors and delivered via a number of different agencies.
AUTHORS' RECOMMENDATIONS:
The authors recommended that schools assess their needs and take on a violence prevention approach that acknowledges, and addresses, violence problems existing in the broader community. The K-12 school health education programs were recommended.
(CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado)
Violence Causes
Sociocultural Factors
Juvenile Violence
Juvenile Offender
Juvenile Victim
Juvenile Development
Youth Development
At Risk Youth
At Risk Juvenile
Demographic Factors
Student Violence
School Violence
Violence Prevention
Literature Review
Statistical Data
Family Relations
Peer Relations
Socioeconomic Factors
Violence Risk Factors
Media Violence Effects
Alcohol Use Effects
Drug Use Effects
Firearms Violence
Substance Use Effects
Juvenile Substance Use
Prevention Recommendations
Individual Risk Factors
Family Risk Factors
Peer Risk Factors
Juvenile Homicide
Homicide Offender
Homicide Victim
Homicide Incidence and Prevalence
Homicide Trends and Patterns
Violence Incidence and Prevalence
Violence Trends and Patterns
Victimization Incidence and Prevalence
Victimization Trends and Patterns
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