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Abstract
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VioLit summary:
OBJECTIVE:
The aim of this article by Sautter was to examine the extent of youth violence in American society. Intervention strategies currently in use were outlined. Suggestions for future directions in youth violence prevention were provided.
METHODOLOGY:
The author conducted a non-experimental review of the pertinent literature on the sources of juvenile violence, the impact of youth violence on American society, and current violence prevention programs.
FINDINGS/DISCUSSION:
The author provided statistics on the extent of youth violence in American society. It was found that on average, one adolescent, between the ages of 10 and 19, is killed every three hours with a gun; that since 1950, the number of children killed with a gun has doubled; and that teenagers are at more than twice the risk of being victims of violent crime compared with individuals older than 20 years of age. The author argued that the sale of firearms by more than 284,000 gun dealers has triggered profiteering from gun sales among youth gangs. The author stated that although public opinion is changing, there is still those individuals who supplicate that the move against guns is unconstitutional.
The author reported that the psychological trauma of violence victimization has long lasting negative effects on the normal course of development, school learning ability, and childhood happiness of each individual. Additionally, the author contended that everybody is affected by youth violence and mass media hype on youth crime has contributed towards societal paranoia regarding violence.
The author stated, that in opposition to popular assumptions, the number of youths in legal trouble was not greater than ever before. It was found that the frequency of youth arrests had significantly dropped since the mid-1970's. However, it was reported that the types of violent crimes being committed by youth were more serious than they have been in the past. Additionally greater numbers of youth homicide have been reported, and the age of juvenile offenders has decreased. The author stated that in 1990, the youth arrest rate was only 15% of all arrests. In 1992, there were 1,943,138 youth arrests (16% of all arrests). This rate was much lower when compared with 2,078,459 (26% of all arrests) in 1975. The author reported that in 1992, 2,829 youth under age 18 were arrested for murder and there were more handgun crimes committed than ever before. The author contended that, based on a decrement in the age of perpetrators and an increase in the seriousness of the violence committed, youth violence appears worse in the 1990's.
The author reported that of those youth arrested, one third remain in detention centers, and 3 percent are tried in adult courts. It was found that there was a 70% recidivism rate for imprisoned violent youth, and a 50% recidivism rate for those youth committed to boot camps. Many violent youth crimes have been committed by repeat offenders. The author suggested that targeting violent behavior when children were young would be more effective than punishing them in expensive, ineffective, penal institutions at a later age. It was argued that a community commitment to intensive intervention would be required.
The author reported that intervention needed to be directed towards schools, since over 3,000,000 (11% of all crimes) crimes were committed in schools. A study that polled 10,000 students revealed that when projected to the overall U.S. student population, approximately 430,000 students have experienced violent victimizations. The author stated that recent attempts to reduce school violence have included the adoption of "zero tolerance" on weapons and guns at schools. It was suggested that although securing school buildings provided a measure of safety, turning expelled violent youth out onto the streets without intervention would not solve the problem (e.g., many students have been victims of nonstudents). The author argued that metal detectors were expedient since it has been estimated that more than 200,000 students bring weapons to school each day. The National School Safety Center found that in 1994, 35 deaths and 92 injuries in schools were gun related; Justice Department research revealed that 22% of inner-city youths own firearms; University of Michigan researchers found that 9% of eighth grade students carry weapons to school at least once per month; and the National Education Association estimated that more than 160,000 students fail to attend school due to fear of violence. The National School Boards Association concluded that public school violence is worse now than it was five years ago because of family breakdown, violent media and music exposure, substance abuse, poverty and easy access to firearms.
The author argued that although poverty was one of the leading causes of violent crime, not all children in impoverished conditions respond to their situation negatively. It was contended that, for some, poverty motivated achievement. In fact, as stated by the author, much of today's violence was perpetrated by nihilistic middle-class youth.
The author reported that the American Psychological Association (APA) listed domestic violence, sexual violence, hate crimes and peer violence as the principal threats to youth safety. The APA advocated that the cause of violence is multi-faceted and complex. Biological variables, ineffective parenting strategies, child-rearing conditions, cognitive and emotional development, gender differences, sex role socialization, peer relationships, cultural environment, lack of opportunity and economic inequality, and the media, were reported as influential in the development of violence. The APA found that a history of violence was the strongest predictor of a child's involvement in violence. Early intervention in schools and in families was suggested for the prevention of future violence. The APA also contended that deficient parental supervision was one of the strongest predictors of conduct problems. The APA suggested that the commitment of one caring, attentive adult, was sufficient to offset violence in the life of an "at risk" adolescent. Furthermore, it was suggested that exposure to cultural norms and values, and a sense of belonging to a group with consensus, may assist in averting violence involvement.
The author outlined searches for solutions to youth violence. The National School Boards Association reported that the following interventions being used to reduce violence in schools: 1) "zero tolerance" policies, 2) collaboration with social service agencies (70% of districts), 3) the teaching of conflict resolution skills and peer mediation (60% of districts); the searching of lockers (50% of districts), 4) the establishing of dress codes (41% of districts), 5) the use of drug-detection dogs (24% of districts), and 6) the use of metal detectors (15% of districts according to the National School Boards Association, 45% of districts according to other studies). The effectiveness of metal detectors has been debated. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention advised that detectors would not abolish gun violence since they have had no effect on the rate of deaths, injuries or threats at school. The author reported that hundreds of schools have established anti-violence curricula, conflict management and resolution to combat violence. The author found that the "Anger Management for Youth: Stemming Aggression and Violence" program was reported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, and the National Institute of Mental Health, to be an effective program for teaching methods in anger reduction. It was reported that the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program has been used by many schools. Teachers have claimed that students involved in this approach have more respect for each other, think through alternatives to violence and its consequences. The author argued that program success was contingent on effective teacher and student training.
The author reported that a further anti-violence program for middle-school, the "Aggressors, Victims, and Bystanders: Thinking and Acting to Prevent Violence" program developed by Ronald Slaby, teaches children how to think of alternatives to violence based on the premise that violence is learned behavior. Four steps involving thinking first were included in this model: 1) "Keeping cool," 2) "Sizing up the situation," 3) "Thinking it through," and 4) "Doing the right thing." According to Slaby, middle-school children subconsciously seek out other individuals who solve problems nonviolently. Slaby believed a teacher could, therefore, teach these ways of thinking.
AUTHOR'S RECOMMENDATIONS:
The author found that the APA have recommended that schools utilize programs which 1) have an understanding of sociocultural and developmental risk variables; and 2) use effective theory-based intervention strategies, tested program designs, and valid measurement methods for outcome assessment. The APA also recommended programs that include home visitation and encourage social and cognitive skills development.
The author advocated a safe school environment plan, and a crisis plan, for preventing school violence. It was suggested that each school strategy for violence prevention should match the problems of the individual school. The author also contended that school safety plans should engage the whole community, in which neighborhood members look out for the safety of children. Furthermore, the author advocated that opportunities for children to have contact with mentoring adults should be made available. Finally, the author suggested that only when society advocates people appreciation, and encourages and practices non-violent ways of resolving conflicts, would there be a drastic reduction in youth violence.
(CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado)
Literature Review
Violence Incidence and Prevalence
Victimization Incidence and Prevalence
Violence Effects
Violence Prevention
Violence Intervention
Late Childhood
Late Adolescence
Early Adolescence
Child Offender
Child Victim
Child Violence
Juvenile Offender
Juvenile Victim
Juvenile Violence
Violence Causes
Psychological Victimization Effects
School Violence
Community Violence
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