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Abstract
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VioLit summary:
OBJECTIVE:
The goal of this article by Taylor was to explore a theoretical base for understanding the violent juvenile offender and to find a typology of types of offenders and treatment approaches for each type. An ego development approach was taken.
METHODOLOGY:
A non-experimental methodology was employed in this paper which is comprised by combination of literature review and theoretical writing.
FINDINGS/DISCUSSION:
Violent behavior in adolescents was thought to be a product of the way those adolescents have integrated their needs, perceptions, experiences, and relationships to their environment. The first issue in this that was discussed was ego autonomy. Violence in adolescence was seen as a product of their sense of self, integrally connected to the way the ego has been developed. Ego psychology, the author reported, maintains that ego develops during the course of life as an individual and is influenced by drives and the environment but can act in relatively autonomous ways. This approach saw aggression as more than an expression of impulse; rather, it was a volitional expression of the ego as an adaptive response to conditions within the realm of self regulation. Aggression could be benign (a response to threat to life) or malignant (destructive, cruel, exploitive). Levels of control of primary "reactive" aggression as dependent on ego adaptation was seen to be learned through the process of psychosocial development. Secondary, proactive aggression was seen to arise from emotional conflict as a maladaptive response to internal crises. The author described the central thesis of the paper as being that all forms of aggression are at the command of the ego, and its expression is dependent on the level and mode of ego development; each person has a modal response. Modal behaviors, it was contended, can be shaped if one believes in their independence from instincts and drives. The helping process, following this line of thinking, is the aiding in the reconstruction of the ego so different adaptations can occur. The three tasks of the ego were listed as individuation, identity, and coping. Overall, the ego grows in stages through development of interpersonal relationships toward greater autonomy; these stages were 1) relationship with primary caretaker (dyadic), 2) addition of one other significant other to the relational world (triadic), 3) small group relationships and friendships, and 4) large group orientation with social institutions being part of the identity. Individuation referred to the consolidation of feelings and autonomy and the blending of feelings with internal social norms. The juvenile delinquent was thought to be not fully completing early stages of development and was, thus, egocentric, suffering in self esteem, and antisocial through self-involvement with self needs gratification. Programs which offer the possibility for experiencing autonomy and competence were seen as the preferred method for treatment so that rebellion and antisocial ways could be replaced; flexibility in programming, small and community-based programming, and opportunities in other realities were important features. Identity referred to the ego integration which resulted in the inner self substituted for earlier dependencies and the relationship with the social world served autonomous strivings and the need for social acceptance. If this development was not complete enough for positive self-esteem, negative identities could arise which led to adherence to contrary norms for identity establishment.
Translated to programs, this lack of identity formation needed an experience which would allow individuation to occur through a secure sense of the inner self; healthy identification through positive relationships with adults and exposure to non-delinquent peers were seen as important. Coping referred to the ego's development of defense and coping adaptations and responses to crises in an active way including such activities as logical analysis, empathy, and the like. Delinquent egos were seen as unable to accommodate and assimilate new experiences or see things in a larger social context so violence, as an expression of aggression, was used as a coping style. Helping, the author stated, should enable the process of restructuring the ego organization so that there is more resilience, flexibility, and effective coping methods; this would involve periodic, well planned, intense involvement which would develop healthy responses. Serious juvenile offenders, the author claimed, have primitive ego development, have not reached self-awareness, individuality and self concept, have not identified with socially acceptable role models, and have not internalized rules and expectations.
Three different types of juvenile offenders were described. The first, the life style violent juvenile offender, was described as having hedonistic and distorted values, anti-social peer groups with anti-social role models and values, have little concept of the relationship between actions and consequences, and feel like they need to exploit others before being exploited themselves. These youth were said to have developed a negative identity and were likely operating at the stage where peer relations were important but in a distorted way using violence as a coping mechanism. Programmic response, the author argued, should include the teaching of responsible living associated with rewards so that ego adaptation must take different, less violent characteristics. The second described juvenile offender was the emotionally disturbed offender who is generally in need of secure care and mental health services. These youth were described as highly impulsive and energetic, anxious, defiant, sexually acting out, rageful when limits are set, insensitive to the needs of others, not able to conceptualize to a degree to learn from experience, is perceived as "different" and a "loner," and acts out rather than fantasizes using aggressive outbursts to handle conflict. The author stated that almost all of these youth have homicidal and suicidal ideation and potential. Psychosis may be present. It was said to be difficult to know what level these youth were functioning at; many times this level could change. Backgrounds of these youth often included family violence, disruptions and loss in family life, inconsistencies in parental discipline and other parental behaviors, and general neglect and consistent care for the child's needs. Aggression, then, was seen to be one way in which they could be making the world more predictable.
Programming, it was reported, must be multi-faceted to deal with the multiplicity of needs, deficits, and behavioral responses. Some of the suggestions were 1) safe, limit-setting environment, 2) intense educational experiences for the child to attend to the tasks of restructuring thinking and perceptual patterns, teaching problem-solving and meaningful communication, and encouraging abstract thinking and ego-determined controls, 3) teaching social skills and more resilient ways of coping, 4) work with the adolescent's family, and 5) inclusion of community-based experiences. The third violent juvenile offender type described was the sadomasochistic offender. This youth was characterized by a pull toward and excitement about violence, being a "loner," torturing and killing animals, obsession with guns, war, and the like, and sadistic fantasies. These youth were described as operating at very immature levels of ego development, are fixed at early stages of dependency and helplessness, have associated pleasure-seeking with autonomy aims, and a need to feel powerful to compensate for feelings of powerlessness. These youth were also found to be, in some occasions, participants in self-mutiliation or psychological self-abuse, and they did not have the flexibility needed to adequately cope with situations. Helping, the author claimed, needed to include intensive individual psychotherapy and family therapy to foster more positive primary relationships. Group therapy and other such approaches were not advocated until the youth could progress past this extremely immature stage. Naturalistic experiences outside the institution was also encouraged. Long-term psychiatric supervision was highly recommended.
AUTHOR'S RECOMMENDATIONS:
Overall, the author recommended these things for all three types of offenders: 1) containment in a secure setting for an initial period of time, 2) programming within that setting to serve special ego development needs, 3) family work of some sort, and 4) contact with community-based experiences from the outset that progressively increases as treatment continues. Mostly, treatment should be sensitive to individual ego development issues, and more clinical research is needed the author argued.
EVALUATION:
This article does several things. First, it links psychological theory to practical strategies for treatment. Second, it begins an important process of differentiation between different types of juvenile offenders who have different needs. What this article does not address are subcultural factors, social structural factors, and other social factors which create the context in which these actions are triggered and played out. These criticisms, however, are more general criticisms of the field of psychology as well. The major strength of this article was its application to practical issues. (CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado)
KW - Offender Treatment
KW - Violence Treatment
KW - Offender Characteristics
KW - Offender Typology
KW - Juvenile Offender
KW - Juvenile Violence
KW - Juvenile Treatment
KW - Offender Diagnosis
KW - Juvenile Development
KW - Ego Development
KW - Violence Causes |