Citation

Yang H. Jpn. J. Cult. Anthropol. 2008; 73(3): 419-453.

Copyright

(Copyright © 2008, Japanese Society of Cultural Anthropology)

DOI

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PMID

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Abstract

This paper focuses on the "ethnic genocide against the Inner Mongols" that broke out in Inner Mongolia during the Great Chinese Cultural Revolution that took place between the autumn of 1968 and the early spring of 1970. An analysis is made from the perspective of ethnic genocide. The world experienced a large number of genocides in the 20th century, including the Holocaust perpetrated by Nazi Germany. In the aftermath of World War II, a resolution was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on Dec. 9, 1948, entitled the "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide." This important development demonstrates a strong resolution shared in the international community that such atrocities should never be repeated in human history. The Convention defines "genocide" as follows: Genocide means any of the following acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: (a) Killing members of the group; (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. Despite that convention, subsequent decades witnessed the outbreak of many acts of genocide in various places across the world, rather than its elimination. This paper tries to elucidate how closely genocide relates itself to the fundamental nature of the modem state, particularly the tension between the state (which insists on political unity) and ethnic minorities (which demand self-determination and autonomy). The analysis is based on the theory of "nation-state genocide," which has been maintained by quite a few experts. In November 1911, the Mongolian independence movement began in Outer Mongolia. Most of the Inner Mongolian banners (qoshighu) also supported pan-Mongolism, which sought the building of a nation-state. Independence from Qing was interpreted as national "split-ism" (minzu fenlie zhuyi) by Communist China, which labeled it as an "original sin," and which used it as an excuse to carry out massacres. For both Communist China and the Mongols, there were high aspirations for the establishment of a unified nation-state. Strong opposition was launched by Communist China, but the Mongols attempted to construct another nation-state of their own. That made the Mongols the victims of genocide committed by China. Communist China recognizes 55 national minorities (shaoshu minzu) as official ethnic groups. Those Chinese anthropologists favored and patronized by the establishment have peppered Chinese history with self-pride and self-commendations. They claim that "China has been a unified multi-ethnic nation state since ancient times, the centerpiece of which has been the Han (Chinese)." Propaganda has taught that the ethnic minorities in China have been taken good care of by "the Han (Chinese), the big brother," and have been living happy lives as members of the "giant socialist multi-ethnic family bonded together by the spirit of unity." This sort of self-commendation has obscured the historical realities of genocide perpetrated against various ethnic minorities in China. Historically speaking, the leading doctrine of socialism interpreted ethnic relations in terms of ethnocide: any ethnic differences should be resolved once class distinctions are overcome. China is no exception. A tragedy for the Mongols, and for other ethnic minorities in China, was that, due to the escalated internal struggles within the headquarters of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the resolution of ethnic problems was repeatedly carried out as literally violent genocides. The Chinese Cultural Revolution was initiated by the CCP in 1966. In order to achieve its ideal, that is, the "extinction of ethnic groups," the CCP exercised violence, in which it was highly skilled. A typical example was the genocide committed in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (IMAR) against members of the Inner Mongolia People's Party (IMPP) and other organizations whose members were primarily Mongols. The Chinese establishment described that incident as a "movement to identify and purge away (wasu) the members of the IMPP." This political party, the IMPP, was founded in 1925 for the purpose of achieving the independence of Inner Mongolia. The formation of the party was largely assisted by the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP, the ruling party of the People's Republic of Mongolia). The Comintern provided significant support and encouragement as well. In subsequent years, when Japan advanced its military control over China, most members of the IMPP became government officials in the Manchurian Empire ruled by Japan. Upon the defeat of Japan at the end of World War II, the IMPP resumed its political activities, aspiring to achieve integration with the People's Republic of Mongolia. However, that venture was suppressed by the CCP and fell through. The political maneuver to suppress Inner Mongolian independence was headed by a Mongol called Ulaanhu, who was patronized by the CCP. When the IMPP was forced to dissolve in 1947, some members opted to join the CCP. Ulaanhu was highly praised for his contribution to, and regarded as a "dedicated loyal friend" of the CCP. He stayed in power as the supreme ruler of Inner Mongolia from 1947 until the beginning of 1966. Meanwhile, immigrants to this area, particularly Han Chinese, hoped to secure their advance by destroying Mongol autonomy. The political landscape of Inner Mongolia was completely overturned in 1966. That year, Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Central Committee of the CCP, suddenly accused the IMPP headed by Ulaanhu of persistently refusing to dissolve since 1947, and that it continued an underground "political movement aiming at dividing China, the motherland." With that accusation, the genocide against Mongols started, with the aim of rooting out the Mongolian elites. The Han (Chinese) military man Teng Haiqing widened the Cultural Revolution's attack on the previous autonomy policy, an attack which turned into a genocidal campaign. A conservative estimate by the Chinese government states that 27,900 Mongols lost their lives. An independent study reports, however, that a further 50,000 Mongols were victims of the Revolution. On May 22, 1969, Mao criticized excessive persecutions in general terms, and in December, Teng was dismissed and Inner Mongolia was made to receive a new Han (Chinese) military man. Only in April 1978 was the "Purge of IMPP" officially acknowledged to have been fabricated, but none of the top leaders responsible was punished. Today, the Chinese government only mentions the following statement formally: "It was only a fight among the Mongols themselves." The genocide against the Mongols suspected as IMAR members was triggered mostly by the confrontation between two forces: one for the unification of a nation-state and the other opposed to it. That incident reveals the autocratic and violent nature of the policies implemented by the socialist government of China upon the ethnic minorities.

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