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Abstract
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Homicide and nonfatal injuries resulting from interpersonal violence are significant contributors to the excess early mortality and morbidity of African-American youth. Although there is growing recognition of the need for prevention programs specifically directed to these youth, culturally relevant programs to reduce aggression and victimization in high-risk racial and ethnic groups are virtually nonexistent. This article reports preliminary findings of a program to train African-American adolescents in social skills, an approach which shows promise as a means of preventing violence. The pilot study suggests a need for continued research on this and other prevention approaches to reduce the disproportionate--and preventable--risk of injury or death for this vulnerable population.
VioLit summary:
OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this study by Hammond and Yung was to report preliminary findings of a program, Positive Adolescents Choices Training (PACT), designed to teach African-American youth social skills to aid in prevention of violence. Prevention programs that are culturally relevant and that reduce aggression and victimization, aimed for at-risk youth, are extremely rare. This work is based on the theory that violence is a public health issue, and that violence breeds future violence. Black on black violence is thought by Oliver (p. 361) to be produced by "structural pressures (e.g., racism and resulting self-deprecation) and dysfunctional cultural adaptations to those pressures" (p. 361). Though the actual roots of violence are not understood, correlates include occurrence among family members, friends and acquaintances rather than strangers. Age, race, social status, education, and personal characteristics tend to be similar among perpetrators and victims of violence, and often the reasons for the violent act are very trivial. PACT is a program targeted to African-American adolescents, that stresses health promotion and risk reduction, by focusing on areas such as communication, negotiation and problem-solving. It promotes social skills to help these adolescents form and keep relationships free of violence.
METHODOLOGY:
This study used an experimental design with an experimental and control group, not random in assignment. Ratings of the six skill areas were done with both groups pre and post. The training program for the experimental group consisted of 50-minute sessions at the school twice a week for the semester, totalling 37 or 38 sessions. The sessions, conducted by African-American doctoral students in clinical psychology, focused on giving positive and negative feedback, accepting negative feedback, resisting peer pressure, problem-solving, and negotiating. It was modeled on the ASSET curriculum of Hazel and colleagues (p. 365). Skills were shown through vignettes on videotape, and participants were then able to observe and practice each skill with their peers, and to observe themselves on videotape using these skills. Incentives were used to reward appropriate behavior. Selection of the trainees was done by teachers, based on observed deficiencies in interaction skills, behavior problems such as aggression, or history of victimization by violence. Trained observers (graduate-level psychology students) were used to assess skills pre and post, with no knowledge of whether individuals were in the training program. Assessments were also done by 16 teachers (who did know the student's involvement in the training program) and by the students themselves. School records were also used to compile the aggressive behavior indicators, and to document suspensions and expulsions. Two other skills not taught were evaluated (conversation and following directions) to see if other areas were affected. There were no statistical analyses done on the data collected. Charts were provided which showed such things as percentage of improvement in the various skills of those who completed training. Two charts compared the experimental and control groups. One was a rating by teachers of the changes in skills within the groups, and the other was a chart of the number of suspensions pre and post of the groups, with the partly trained group separated from the fully trained.
FINDINGS/DISCUSSION:
Participants in the full training program improved in all targeted areas, as well as the two non-targeted areas. The greatest gains were observed (by the trained observers) in the areas with the need for the most improvement. These areas were: giving negative feedback, problem-solving, and resisting peer pressure, with an average gain across the areas of 33.5%. The teacher ratings were very closely matched with the observer ratings. Both teachers and observers perceived greater gains in targeted skills for PACT-trained youth than for untrained youth (30.4% increase versus 1.1% loss). Students also felt there had been improvement, except in the skill of problem-solving. The skills with the greatest improvement were giving and accepting negative feedback, as perceived by the students. The school records of suspensions and expulsions showed that after training, students differed from the untrained in that area. "Preliminary findings suggest that PACT improves youths' communication (i.e., giving and receiving negative and positive feedback), problem-solving, and negotiation skills, which are assumed to relate positively to one's ability to solve relationship problems nonviolently. Indeed, this early evidence of positive results has provided an impetus for refinements to the PACT program" (pp. 369-370).
AUTHORS' RECOMMENDATIONS:
Results need to be interpreted with caution, due to small sample size (12 fully trained participants). There is a need for longitudinal follow-up to see if the improvements in skills persist over time, and translate to settings outside the training sessions. Other approaches need to be explored, such as multiskill training programs, with anger management, moral reasoning, developing racial pride, and companion parent training. The problem of youth violence and homicide is morally and economically tragic, and multilevel solutions must be sought. Racism and poverty must also be addressed, as they relate to violence and impede equality and access to opportunity. "Ultimately, community resource development, the improvement of public education, and equitable law and policy will reduce the risk of violence for all Americans." (p. 371)
EVALUATION:
Since the methodology consisted of rather subjective observations, the study was rather incomplete in its analysis. The charts included also were incomplete, in that they did not include any comparisons between the experimental and control groups by the least subjective evaluators, the observers. The number was indeed very small, and there were only two trained observers doing the ratings without knowledge of the participation of the individual. (CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado)
KW - African American Violence
KW - At Risk Juvenile
KW - At Risk Youth
KW - Conflict Resolution
KW - Juvenile Violence
KW - Juvenile Offender
KW - Violence Prevention
KW - Prevention Program
KW - Program Evaluation
KW - Prosocial Skills
KW - Social Skills Development
KW - Sociocultural Factors
KW - African American Offender
KW - African American Juvenile
KW - Health Promotion
KW - Risk Reduction
KW - Culturally Sensitive
KW - Public Health Approach
KW - Communication Skills
KW - Problem Solving Skills
KW - School Based
KW - Social Skills Training
KW - Prevention Education
KW - Education Program
KW - Public Health Approach
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