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Abstract
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VioLit summary:
OBJECTIVE:
The aim of this report by Bell and Jenkins was to present an examination of the effects of traumatic stress and violence upon black youth.
METHODOLOGY:
The authors employed a non-experimental exploratory design to examine black youths' levels of exposure to violence, the effects of this exposure and strategies for prevention and treatment.
FINDINGS/DISCUSSION:
The authors began with a discussion about the extent of children's exposure to violence. Various studies have shown that children are exposed to a considerable level of violence in early life. A 1982 study of homicides in Los Angeles found that 20% of the county's murders were witnessed by a dependent child, and a study in Detroit in 1985 found that 17% of homicides had been seen by youth under the age of 18 years. Research in which the authors had participated was conducted by the Community Mental Health Center in Chicago. A 32-item survey of 536 African-American school children in grades two, four, six and eight found that 26% had seen a person being shot, and 29% had witnessed a stabbing. A subsequent survey of more than one thousand middle and high school students from a high crime area in Chicago found that 35% had been witness to a stabbing, 39% had witnessed a shooting and as many as 24% had actually seen a person killed. Most of the victims were known to the respondents, and just fewer than half were family, friends or neighbors. 46% had been the victim of some form of serious crime. For the African-American community, homicide rates have increased steadily since 1985, with the homicide rate for young black men being seven times that for white males. Homicide is now the primary cause of death for black males and females between 15 and 34 years of age. Some of the factors that were seen to fuel this high rate of killings were unemployment, drug abuse and family disintegration. Murders of African-Americans were more likely to involve unpremeditated attacks with handguns following emotional outbursts that occurred within the home, and were often witnessed by children. For inner-city residents, one of the greatest dangers has been the threat of being caught in random gunfire as an innocent victim.
The effects of such exposure to violence have been the subject of much investigation. Children who have been exposed to high levels of violence within their community environments have been found to be suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, and to have low levels of self-esteem and poor cognitive and academic performance scores. Such children have also been found to experience problems in controlling their aggressive impulses, as well as being emotionally withdrawn and passive. Adolescent responses to such stresses have been found to include self- destructive behaviors such as substance abuse, delinquency, promiscuity and general aggression. For inner-city children, the issue of the effects of exposure to chronic violence is of primary concern. Instead of becoming desensitized to such chronic violence, research has found that children become overloaded, with the effects of this type of long-term trauma being additive. Chronic violence has an effect not only upon the individual concerned, but also upon the community as a whole, as people might learn that violence is an acceptable means of achieving one's goals, and they may develop violent behaviors themselves. Violence might be seen as a form of protection against victimization, or it might be used as retaliation for some prior incident. Exposure to chronic violence often leads children to enter the cycle of violence and fear themselves.
Much research has been conducted on the efficacy of various treatment options for prevention and intervention with black youth in inner-city areas. A number of school-based programs have addressed the issue of violence through programs teaching conflict resolution techniques, in an effort to change the behavioral norms that often exist within these communities. Community-based programs include those aimed at reducing youth involvement in drugs, gangs and violence via improvement of self-esteem and provision of education and job skills training. Some programs have centered upon the witnesses of violence. Classes and groups exploring feelings of grief and ideas about death have shown some promise in improving the emotional health of witnesses of violence. The Prevention Intervention Program in Trauma, Violence, and Sudden Bereavement in Childhood at the University of California, Los Angeles is based upon the notion that the physical and emotional consequences of a traumatic event will determine both the child's symptoms and the necessary treatment program. The key to such intervention programs is that they be applied soon after the incident occurs, even if no obvious symptoms are present. The identification of children exposed to chronic violence however, is not an easy matter, as such children often do not receive much media or community attention. As well as this, many symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder are seen as inherent to inner-city life, so that the contribution of chronic violence is neglected, resulting in inadequate and inappropriate treatments.
AUTHORS' RECOMMENDATIONS:
The authors suggested a number of methods for identifying and treating children who are exposed to chronic violence, and they identified various directions for future research. Screening in schools could be conducted of children who are in the high-risk category for exposure to violence, in order to identify any that might require mental health services. Information about levels of exposure, including being a witness, victim or perpetrator, could be collected by doctors and mental health professionals, in order to provide referrals or treatment where appropriate. Exposure to violence and victimization have been found to be linked with subsequent perpetration of violence, and information obtained about these three factors could help direct intervention and prevention programs. Children who are recorded as witnesses in police reports could also be approached for intervention and treatment, as they most likely have been severely affected by violence. Appropriate and adequate services such as treatment centers must be made available to these children, with direct service organizations and specifically trained professionals to deal with children's responses to violence. A combined effort should be made on the parts of institutions such as the schools, police and child welfare agencies, academic professionals who could provide knowledge and expertise in research and treatment approaches, and service agencies which can provide treatment professionals and sites in which the programs can take place.
Much more research needs to be conducted about the child witness of chronic violence. Information about the circumstances and the extent of exposure, as well as about factors that can act to mediate the impact of such exposure, is much needed. The prevalence of different types of exposure needs to be studied, examining rates of exposure to violence against family, friends and strangers. Related to this is the need for more information about the different effects of witnessing violence against family as opposed to that directed toward strangers. Characteristics of the perpetrator of the event, such as relationship to victim and type of violence used, have been given little attention in research to date, and data about multiple chronic exposure to violence and its interaction with other stresses in inner-city life has so far been rather neglected. Other research questions should examine those children who do not suffer from psychological damage as a result of exposure to violence, looking at the roles of buffers or protecting forces in their lives. Age and developmental level have been found to play a role in the development of psychological responses to violence, with children who experience initial trauma before the age of ten years being three times more likely than older children to experience post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Other factors such as family structure and relationships, rural or urban residence, class, ethnicity or personal values should also be examined as possible protecting forces. Further research is also needed on the symptoms that follow exposure to a traumatic event, and on gender differences in response to violence. The authors concluded that physicians and mental health workers, as well as educators and the police should learn about the symptoms and the circumstances of post-traumatic stress disorder, and should be made aware of the urgent need for fast referrals and treatment in such cases. As well as this, further research must be conducted with a uniform method of data collection and increased collaboration between various service agencies, universities and institutions which can identify victims of violence.
EVALUATION:
The authors present an interesting and informative examination of some of the issues surrounding the effects upon children of chronic exposure to violence. They provide a good discussion of the prevalence and the effects of such exposure, as well as suggesting some excellent and highly relevant and timely recommendations for both identification and treatment of these children as well as for directions of future research. This paper should be considered as a well-presented and thoughtful guide for treatment, intervention and prevention planners, and as a foundation upon which to build further research in this area. (CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado)
KW - Illinois
KW - Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
KW - African American Victim
KW - Juvenile Victim
KW - Witnessing Violence Effects
KW - Community Violence
KW - Treatment Recommendations
KW - Intervention Recommendations
KW - Prevention Recommendations
KW - Minority Group
KW - Psychological Victimization Effects
KW - Violence Intervention
KW - Violence Prevention
KW - Violence Treatment
Language: en |