%0 Journal Article
%T Assessing the effects of school-based drug education: A six-year multilevel analysis of project D.A.R.E
%J Journal of research in crime and delinquency
%D 1998
%A Rosenbaum, Dennis P.
%A Hanson, G. S.
%V 35
%N 4
%P 381-412
%X A randomized longitudinal field experiment was conducted to estimate the short- and long-term effects of the Drug Abuse Resistance Education program (D.A.R.E.) on students' attitudes, beliefs, social skills, and drug use behaviors. Students from urban, suburban, and rural schools (N = 1,798) were followed for more than six years, with surveys administered each year from 6th through 12th grades. Teachers were also surveyed annually to measure students' cumulative exposure to supplemental (post-D.A.R.E.) drug education. Multilevel analyses (random-effects ordinal regression) were conducted on seven waves of posttreatment data. The results indicate that D.A.R.E. had no long-term effects on a wide range of drug use measures, nor did it show a lasting impact on hypothesized mediating variables, with one exception. Previously documented short-term effects had dissipated by the conclusion of the study. Some D.A.R.E.-by-community interactions were observed: Urban and rural students showed some benefits, whereas suburban students experienced small but significant increases in drug use after participation in D.A.R.E.   VioLit summary:  OBJECTIVE:       The aim of this study by Rosenbaum and Hanson was to report on a comprehensive longitudinal evaluation of a Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) program that occurred between 1989 and 1996.        METHODOLOGY:       The authors employed an experimental, longitudinal design. It was conducted as a randomized field experiment with one pretest and multiple planned post-tests. The researchers identified eighteen pairs of elementary schools representative of urban, suburban, and rural areas. Each pair was matched by type: ethnic composition, number of students with limited English proficiency, and percentage of students from low-income families. For twelve pairs from urban and suburban settings, one school in each pair was randomly assigned to receive D.A.R.E., while the others were placed in the control group. In the rural pairs, non-random assignments were necessary because of logistic considerations that affected the availability of D.A.R.E. officers. The sample included a total of 1,798 students.       One survey for the students and one survey for teachers were administered each year over the six years of data collection. The purpose of the student survey was to determine D.A.R.E.'s overall effect on students' beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors relating to drug use. The teacher survey was to provide supplemental information.       On the student survey, the following issues were explored and measured. First, students were asked two sets of questions about their use of various drugs, including tobacco and alcohol. A composite Alcohol Use Index was constructed from measures of four different types of alcohol: beer, wine, wine coolers, and hard liquor. A value of one indicated that the student had used one of the four, while a value of two indicated that the student had used two or more. A 30-Day Total Drug Use Index was also developed with a combination of students' responses to eleven different types of drug and alcohol questions. A value of one indicated that the student had used one or two types of drugs during the previous 30 days, while a two indicated they had used three or more. Second, students were asked to indicate how old they were when they first became intoxicated on alcohol, and how old they were when they began to have one drink at least once a month. Third, students were asked to indicate their level of agreement with eight statements regarding drug use in general. A scale was computed by summing student responses resulting in a high score representing a positive attitude toward drugs. Fourth, attitudes toward specific drugs were assessed with a higher score indicating a more positive attitude. Fifth, students were asked about perceived benefits and costs of using drugs with a higher score indicating the undesired outcome of lower perceived costs and higher perceived benefits of drug use. Sixth, two constructs were developed to measure perceptions of the media's influences on smoking and beer drinking by totaling student responses to questions about it. A higher score indicated a lower student perception of media attempts to make smoking and drinking appear attractive. Seventh, self-esteem was measured by six items from the Rosenbaum Self-Esteem scale. A higher score represented higher self-esteem. Eighth, students rated five items from the Attitude toward Police scale developed by Faine and Bohlander. A higher score indicated more favorable attitudes toward the police. Ninth, peer resistance skills were measured by students responding to four hypothetical situations where peers offered them alcohol or cigarettes. They rated their ability to say no on a four-point scale varying from "not sure at all" to "very sure." A higher score indicated greater confidence in one's ability to resist peer pressure to use cigarettes or alcohol. Tenth, school performance was measured using self-reported grades ranging from less than D's (1) to mostly A's (8). Eleventh, delinquent and violent behavior was measured by a multi-item index. Behaviors included group violence, theft of property under fifty dollars, theft of property over fifty dollars, shoplifting, and damage to school property.       The authors hypothesized that students who participated in D.A.R.E. would be more likely to not use drugs, have more negative attitudes toward drug use, perceive more costs of using drugs, perceive greater media influences toward smoking and drinking, have higher self-esteem, have a more positive attitude toward the police, have greater peer resistance skills, have improved grades after D.A.R.E., and exhibit less delinquent and violent behavior than students who did not receive D.A.R.E. Analysis included the use of regressions and analysis of variances.  FINDINGS/DISCUSSION:       The authors first discussed the hypothesis that D.A.R.E. would have a sustained effect on the variables that are assumed to mediate the relationship between drug education and drug use (students' attitudes, beliefs, and social skills pertaining to drug use). For the most part, the results did not support the hypothesis. Only one significant D.A.R.E. effect remained when controlling for change in the variables over time. Students in D.A.R.E. were significantly more likely to report awareness of media efforts to make beer more attractive than students in the control groups.       The authors also examined the hypothesis that D.A.R.E. would improve academic performance. It was reported that although the trend was favorable, the overall results did not support this hypothesis.       The findings also indicated that D.A.R.E. may have differential subgroup effects. For example, D.A.R.E. was less effective in conveying the costs associated with alcohol and cigarette use to African-Americans, yet more effective with this groups in promoting the recognition of media attempts to promote beer and cigarettes. Moreover, D.A.R.E. appeared to have the desired effect of increasing self-esteem and one's perceived ability to resist peer pressure in urban and rural areas, while it appeared to have opposite effects in suburban areas.       In regards to drug use, the hypothesis was that D.A.R.E. would have a preventive effect on drug use behaviors. Contrary to the hypothesis, the findings indicated no support for this. It was found that D.A.R.E. had no significant impact on any of the four drug use scales. Thus, students who participated in D.A.R.E. were no different than students in the control group in terms of their recent and lifetime use of drugs and alcohol. Moreover, while it was found that D.A.R.E. alone had no main effects on drug use, supplemental programs appeared to have adverse effects, and together they appeared to have no effect.       The authors concluded by stating that although D.A.R.E. was able to have limited immediate and short-term effects on several mediating variable (i.e., resistance skills, attitudes about drugs), nearly all of these effects dissipated with time and did not last into the critical high school years.  (CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado)  KW  - School Based KW  - Prevention Program KW  - Substance Use Prevention KW  - Longitudinal Studies KW  - Juvenile Attitudes KW  - Juvenile Perceptions KW  - Social Skills KW  - Juvenile Substance Use KW  - Junior High School Student KW  - Senior High School Student KW  - Program Effects KW  - Program Evaluation KW  - Long Term Effects KW  - Short Term Effects KW  - Urban School KW  - Suburban School KW  - Rural School KW  - Urban Youth KW  - Suburban Youth KW  - Rural Youth KW  - Drug Use Prevention KW  - Late Childhood KW  - Late Adolescence KW  - Early Adolescence KW  - Elementary School Student KW  - Child Attitudes KW  - Child Perceptions KW  - Child Substance Use KW  - Child Prosocial Behavior KW  - Juvenile Prosocial Behavior KW  - Prosocial Attitudes and Behavior<p />
%G 
%I SAGE Publishing
%@ 0022-4278
%U http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022427898035004002