@article{ref1,
title="Panic disorder following torture by suffocation is associated with predominantly respiratory symptoms",
journal="Psychological medicine",
year="1999",
author="Bouwer, C. and Stein, D.",
volume="29",
number="1",
pages="233-236",
abstract="BACKGROUND: We previously reported that in panic disorder a history of near-suffocation is associated with predominantly respiratory panic attacks. It might be hypothesized that the near-suffocation experienced in certain kinds of torture is also associated with the development of predominantly respiratory panic attacks. METHODS: A sample of patients who had experienced torture (N = 14) was drawn from an Anxiety Disorders Clinic in South Africa. Subjects were questioned about symptoms of panic disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. RESULTS: Patients with a history of torture by suffocation were more likely than other patients to complain of predominantly respiratory symptoms during panic attacks. These patients also demonstrated higher levels of depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: While various interpretations of the data can be made, it is possible that torture by suffocation is associated with a specific symptomatic profile. Were such an association to be replicated, this would perhaps support the suffocation alarm hypothesis of panic disorder and provide evidence that specific environmental factors play a role in the development of this alarm.<p /><p>Language: en</p>",
language="en",
issn="0033-2917",
doi="",
url="http://dx.doi.org/"
}